हाइड्रोजन सुरक्षा: Difference between revisions
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| 1937-05-06 | | 1937-05-06 | ||
| [[Naval Air Station Lakehurst]] | | [[Naval Air Station Lakehurst|नेवल एयर स्टेशन लेकहर्स्ट]] | ||
| As the zeppelin Hindenburg was approaching landing, a [[Hindenburg disaster|fire detonated one of the aft hydrogen cells]], thereby rupturing neighboring cells and causing the airship to fall to the ground aft-first. The inferno then travelled towards the stern, bursting and igniting the remaining cells. | | As the zeppelin Hindenburg was approaching landing, a [[Hindenburg disaster|fire detonated one of the aft hydrogen cells]], thereby rupturing neighboring cells and causing the airship to fall to the ground aft-first. The inferno then travelled towards the stern, bursting and igniting the remaining cells. | ||
| Despite 4 news stations recording the disaster on film and surviving eyewitness testimonies from crew and people on the ground, the cause of the initial fire was never conclusively determined.{{Citation needed|date=June 2020}} | | Despite 4 news stations recording the disaster on film and surviving eyewitness testimonies from crew and people on the ground, the cause of the initial fire was never conclusively determined.{{Citation needed|date=June 2020}} | ||
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| 1986-01-28 | | 1986-01-28 | ||
| [[Kennedy Space Center]] | | [[Kennedy Space Center|कैनेडी स्पेस सेंटर]] | ||
| A large LH2 tank ruptured and exploded, killing all 7 astronauts aboard the [[Space Shuttle Challenger]] | | A large LH2 tank ruptured and exploded, killing all 7 astronauts aboard the [[Space Shuttle Challenger]] | ||
| A faulty O-ring on the solid rocket booster allowed hot gases and flames to impinge upon the external LH2 tank, causing the tank wall to weaken and then burst. The thrust generated from the contents of the tank caused the LOX tank above to also rupture, and this mixture of LH2/LOX then detonated, destroying the orbiter in the explosion. | | A faulty O-ring on the solid rocket booster allowed hot gases and flames to impinge upon the external LH2 tank, causing the tank wall to weaken and then burst. The thrust generated from the contents of the tank caused the LOX tank above to also rupture, and this mixture of LH2/LOX then detonated, destroying the orbiter in the explosion. | ||
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| 1999 | | 1999 | ||
| | | हानाऊ, जर्मनी | ||
| A large chemical tank used to store hydrogen for manufacturing processes exploded. | | A large chemical tank used to store hydrogen for manufacturing processes exploded. | ||
| The tank was designed to lie on its side, but instead was laid upright. The forces towards the top of the tank caused it to rupture and then explode.<ref name="tankRupture"/> | | The tank was designed to lie on its side, but instead was laid upright. The forces towards the top of the tank caused it to rupture and then explode.<ref name="tankRupture"/> | ||
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| 2007-01 | | 2007-01 | ||
| [[Muskingum River Power Plant| | | [[Muskingum River Power Plant|मस्किंगम नदी कोयला संयंत्र]] ([[American Electric Power|एईपी]] के स्वामित्व और संचालित) | ||
| An explosion of compressed hydrogen during delivery at the Muskingum River Coal Plant caused significant damage and killed one person.<ref>{{cite news | url= https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/01/08/AR2007010800350.html | title= Ohio Power Plant Blast Kills 1, Hurts 9 | | An explosion of compressed hydrogen during delivery at the Muskingum River Coal Plant caused significant damage and killed one person.<ref>{{cite news | url= https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/01/08/AR2007010800350.html | title= Ohio Power Plant Blast Kills 1, Hurts 9 | ||
| last= Williams | first= Mark | date= January 8, 2007 |agency= Associated Press | access-date= 2008-05-09 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url= http://www.eei.org/meetings/nonav_2007-04-29-cs/Citations_Accident_Review.pdf | | last= Williams | first= Mark | date= January 8, 2007 |agency= Associated Press | access-date= 2008-05-09 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url= http://www.eei.org/meetings/nonav_2007-04-29-cs/Citations_Accident_Review.pdf | ||
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| 2011 | | 2011 | ||
| [[Fukushima I nuclear accidents| | | [[Fukushima I nuclear accidents|फुकुशिमा]], जापान | ||
| Three reactor buildings were damaged by hydrogen explosions. | | Three reactor buildings were damaged by hydrogen explosions. | ||
| Exposed [[Zircaloy]] cladded fuel rods became very hot and reacted with steam, [[Zirconium alloy#Oxidation of zirconium by steam|releasing hydrogen]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=Nuclear Fuel Behaviour in Loss-of-coolant Accident (LOCA) Conditions|year=2009|publisher=Nuclear Energy Agency, OECD|isbn=978-92-64-99091-3|page=140|url=https://www.oecd-nea.org/nsd/reports/2009/nea6846_LOCA.pdf}}</ref><ref>[http://www.hyer.eu/news/regional-news/hydrogen-in-nuclear-accidents-what-is-the-role-of-the-gas-in-fukushima Hydrogen explosions Fukushima nuclear plant: what happened?] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131202235552/http://www.hyer.eu/news/regional-news/hydrogen-in-nuclear-accidents-what-is-the-role-of-the-gas-in-fukushima |date=2013-12-02 }}. Hyer.eu. Retrieved on 2012-07-13.</ref> The containments were filled with inert nitrogen, which prevented hydrogen from burning in the containment. However, the hydrogen leaked from the containment into the reactor building, where it mixed with air and exploded.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www-pub.iaea.org/MTCD/Publications/PDF/Pub1710-ReportByTheDG-Web.pdf|title=The Fukushima Daiichi Accident. Report by the Director General|date=2015|publisher=International Atomic Energy Agency|page=54|access-date=2 March 2018}}</ref> To prevent further explosions, vent holes were opened in the top of the remaining reactor buildings. | | Exposed [[Zircaloy]] cladded fuel rods became very hot and reacted with steam, [[Zirconium alloy#Oxidation of zirconium by steam|releasing hydrogen]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=Nuclear Fuel Behaviour in Loss-of-coolant Accident (LOCA) Conditions|year=2009|publisher=Nuclear Energy Agency, OECD|isbn=978-92-64-99091-3|page=140|url=https://www.oecd-nea.org/nsd/reports/2009/nea6846_LOCA.pdf}}</ref><ref>[http://www.hyer.eu/news/regional-news/hydrogen-in-nuclear-accidents-what-is-the-role-of-the-gas-in-fukushima Hydrogen explosions Fukushima nuclear plant: what happened?] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131202235552/http://www.hyer.eu/news/regional-news/hydrogen-in-nuclear-accidents-what-is-the-role-of-the-gas-in-fukushima |date=2013-12-02 }}. Hyer.eu. Retrieved on 2012-07-13.</ref> The containments were filled with inert nitrogen, which prevented hydrogen from burning in the containment. However, the hydrogen leaked from the containment into the reactor building, where it mixed with air and exploded.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www-pub.iaea.org/MTCD/Publications/PDF/Pub1710-ReportByTheDG-Web.pdf|title=The Fukushima Daiichi Accident. Report by the Director General|date=2015|publisher=International Atomic Energy Agency|page=54|access-date=2 March 2018}}</ref> To prevent further explosions, vent holes were opened in the top of the remaining reactor buildings. | ||
|- | |- | ||
| 2015 | | 2015 | ||
| | |ताइवान में [[Formosa Plastics Group|फॉर्मोसा प्लास्टिक समूह]] रिफाइनरी | ||
| Chemical plant explosion | | Chemical plant explosion | ||
| Due to hydrogen leaking from a pipe<ref>{{Cite web|last=Charlier|first=Phillip|date=2019-04-07|title=Chemical plant explosion rocks southern Taiwan, heard more than 30 kilometers away|url=https://taiwanenglishnews.com/chemical-plant-explosion-rocks-southern-taiwan-heard-more-than-30-kilometers-away/|access-date=2020-11-26|website=Taiwan English News|language=en-US}}</ref> | | Due to hydrogen leaking from a pipe<ref>{{Cite web|last=Charlier|first=Phillip|date=2019-04-07|title=Chemical plant explosion rocks southern Taiwan, heard more than 30 kilometers away|url=https://taiwanenglishnews.com/chemical-plant-explosion-rocks-southern-taiwan-heard-more-than-30-kilometers-away/|access-date=2020-11-26|website=Taiwan English News|language=en-US}}</ref> | ||
|- | |- | ||
| 2018-02-12 1:20 p.m. | | 2018-02-12 1:20 p.m. | ||
| [[Diamond Bar, California| | |[[Diamond Bar, California|डायमंड बार]], लॉस एंजिल्स, सीए का एक उपनगर | ||
| On the way to an [[Fuel cell vehicle|FCV]] [[hydrogen station]], a truck carrying about 24 compressed hydrogen tanks caught fire. This caused the evacuation initially of a one-mile radius area of Diamond Bar. The fire broke out on the truck at about 1:20 p.m. at the intersection of South Brea Canyon Road and Golden Springs Drive, according to a [[Los Angeles County Fire Department]] dispatcher.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.nbclosangeles.com/news/local/Truck-Carrying-Hydrogen-Tanks-Catches-Fire-Causes-Evacuations-in-Diamond-Bar-473746073.html|title=Truck Carrying Hydrogen Tanks Catches Fire, Forces Evacs|website=NBC Southern California|language=en|access-date=2019-06-18}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.nbclosangeles.com/news/local/Diamond-Bar-Evacuations-Lifted-After-Hydrogen-Fire-473802103.html|title=Diamond Bar Evacs Lifted After Hydrogen Fire|website=NBC Southern California|language=en|access-date=2019-06-18}}</ref><ref>{{Citation|last=323/310 Hood News|title=DIAMOND BAR TRUCK EXPLOSION|date=2018-02-12|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0kSEVlyAPIc&t=30 |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211221/0kSEVlyAPIc |archive-date=2021-12-21 |url-status=live|access-date=2019-06-18}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{Citation|last=CBS Los Angeles|title=Tractor Trailer Fire Evacuations In Diamond Bar|date=2018-02-11|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lE4RmMvlIVw |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211221/lE4RmMvlIVw |archive-date=2021-12-21 |url-status=live|access-date=2019-06-18}}{{cbignore}}</ref> | | On the way to an [[Fuel cell vehicle|FCV]] [[hydrogen station]], a truck carrying about 24 compressed hydrogen tanks caught fire. This caused the evacuation initially of a one-mile radius area of Diamond Bar. The fire broke out on the truck at about 1:20 p.m. at the intersection of South Brea Canyon Road and Golden Springs Drive, according to a [[Los Angeles County Fire Department]] dispatcher.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.nbclosangeles.com/news/local/Truck-Carrying-Hydrogen-Tanks-Catches-Fire-Causes-Evacuations-in-Diamond-Bar-473746073.html|title=Truck Carrying Hydrogen Tanks Catches Fire, Forces Evacs|website=NBC Southern California|language=en|access-date=2019-06-18}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.nbclosangeles.com/news/local/Diamond-Bar-Evacuations-Lifted-After-Hydrogen-Fire-473802103.html|title=Diamond Bar Evacs Lifted After Hydrogen Fire|website=NBC Southern California|language=en|access-date=2019-06-18}}</ref><ref>{{Citation|last=323/310 Hood News|title=DIAMOND BAR TRUCK EXPLOSION|date=2018-02-12|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0kSEVlyAPIc&t=30 |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211221/0kSEVlyAPIc |archive-date=2021-12-21 |url-status=live|access-date=2019-06-18}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{Citation|last=CBS Los Angeles|title=Tractor Trailer Fire Evacuations In Diamond Bar|date=2018-02-11|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lE4RmMvlIVw |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211221/lE4RmMvlIVw |archive-date=2021-12-21 |url-status=live|access-date=2019-06-18}}{{cbignore}}</ref> | ||
| The [[National Transportation Safety Board]] has launched an investigation.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://leftlanenews.com/2018/05/10/hydrogen-fcv-refueling-truck-goes-up-in-flames-video-100489/|title=Hydrogen truck explodes on way to FCV refueling site [Video]|website=LeftLaneNews|access-date=2019-06-18}}</ref> | | The [[National Transportation Safety Board]] has launched an investigation.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://leftlanenews.com/2018/05/10/hydrogen-fcv-refueling-truck-goes-up-in-flames-video-100489/|title=Hydrogen truck explodes on way to FCV refueling site [Video]|website=LeftLaneNews|access-date=2019-06-18}}</ref> | ||
|- | |- | ||
| 2018-08 | | 2018-08 | ||
| | | वेरीदम एल काजोन, सीए | ||
| A delivery truck carrying liquid hydrogen caught fire at Veridiam manufacturing plant.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.veridiam.com/|title=Veridiam, Inc.|website=Strategic Manufacturing Partner > Veridiam|access-date=Nov 29, 2020}}</ref> in El Cajon CA.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.10news.com/news/emergency-crews-respond-to-explosion-report-in-el-cajon-neighborhood|title=Truck carrying liquid hydrogen catches fire|date=2018-08-29|website=KGTV|language=en|access-date=2019-06-26}}</ref> | | A delivery truck carrying liquid hydrogen caught fire at Veridiam manufacturing plant.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.veridiam.com/|title=Veridiam, Inc.|website=Strategic Manufacturing Partner > Veridiam|access-date=Nov 29, 2020}}</ref> in El Cajon CA.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.10news.com/news/emergency-crews-respond-to-explosion-report-in-el-cajon-neighborhood|title=Truck carrying liquid hydrogen catches fire|date=2018-08-29|website=KGTV|language=en|access-date=2019-06-26}}</ref> | ||
| It is not known what caused the explosion.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nbcsandiego.com/news/local/hydrogen-explosion-at-el-cajon-business-park-2/173072/|title=Tanker Filled With Liquid Hydrogen Catches Fire at El Cajon Business Park}}</ref> | | It is not known what caused the explosion.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nbcsandiego.com/news/local/hydrogen-explosion-at-el-cajon-business-park-2/173072/|title=Tanker Filled With Liquid Hydrogen Catches Fire at El Cajon Business Park}}</ref> | ||
|- | |- | ||
| 2019-05 | | 2019-05 | ||
| | | [[Waukegan, Illinois|वाउकेगन, इलिनोइस]] में एबी स्पेशलिटी सिलिकॉन | ||
| An explosion killed four workers and seriously injured a fifth. | | An explosion killed four workers and seriously injured a fifth. | ||
| Operator error adding an incorrect ingredient<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://cen.acs.org/safety/industrial-safety/Hydrogen-blast-led-deaths-US/97/web/2019/12|title=Hydrogen blast led to deaths at US silicones plant|website=Chemical & Engineering News|language=en|access-date=2020-01-06}}</ref><ref name="waukegan"/> | | Operator error adding an incorrect ingredient<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://cen.acs.org/safety/industrial-safety/Hydrogen-blast-led-deaths-US/97/web/2019/12|title=Hydrogen blast led to deaths at US silicones plant|website=Chemical & Engineering News|language=en|access-date=2020-01-06}}</ref><ref name="waukegan"/> | ||
|- | |- | ||
| 2019-05-23 | | 2019-05-23 | ||
| | | गैंगवॉन टेक्नोपार्क, गंगनुंग, दक्षिण कोरिया | ||
| A hydrogen tank exploded killing 2 and injuring 6.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.koreaherald.com/view.php?ud=20190523000739|title=Hydrogen tank explosion kills 2 in Gangneung|last=Herald|first=The Korea|date=2019-05-23|website=www.koreaherald.com|language=en|access-date=2019-06-14}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://pulsenews.co.kr/view.php?year=2019&no=346776|title=Tank explosion poses setback for Seoul’s push for hydrogen economy – Pulse by Maeil Business News Korea|website=pulsenews.co.kr|language=ko|access-date=2019-06-14}}</ref> | | A hydrogen tank exploded killing 2 and injuring 6.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.koreaherald.com/view.php?ud=20190523000739|title=Hydrogen tank explosion kills 2 in Gangneung|last=Herald|first=The Korea|date=2019-05-23|website=www.koreaherald.com|language=en|access-date=2019-06-14}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://pulsenews.co.kr/view.php?year=2019&no=346776|title=Tank explosion poses setback for Seoul’s push for hydrogen economy – Pulse by Maeil Business News Korea|website=pulsenews.co.kr|language=ko|access-date=2019-06-14}}</ref> | ||
| Oxygen seeped into the hydrogen storage tanks.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.aiche.org/chs/conferences/international-center-hydrogen-safety-conference/2019/proceeding/paper/review-hydrogen-tank-explosion-gangneung-south-korea|title=Review: Hydrogen Tank Explosion in Gangneung, South Korea|author=Kim, S.I. and Y. Kim|year=2019|publisher=Center for Hydrogen Safety Conference}}</ref> | | Oxygen seeped into the hydrogen storage tanks.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.aiche.org/chs/conferences/international-center-hydrogen-safety-conference/2019/proceeding/paper/review-hydrogen-tank-explosion-gangneung-south-korea|title=Review: Hydrogen Tank Explosion in Gangneung, South Korea|author=Kim, S.I. and Y. Kim|year=2019|publisher=Center for Hydrogen Safety Conference}}</ref> | ||
|- | |- | ||
| 2019-06 | | 2019-06 | ||
| [[Air Products and Chemicals]] | |[[Air Products and Chemicals|वायु उत्पाद और रसायन सुविधा]] सांता क्लारा, सीए में | ||
| Tanker truck explosion damaging surrounding hydrogen transfill facility | | Tanker truck explosion damaging surrounding hydrogen transfill facility | ||
| Leak in transfer hose.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://abc7news.com/5326601/|title=Hydrogen explosion shakes Santa Clara neighborhood|date=2019-06-02|website=ABC7 San Francisco|language=en|access-date=2019-06-12}}</ref> This resulted in the temporary shutdown of multiple hydrogen fueling stations in the San Francisco area.<ref>Woodrow, Melanie. [https://abc7news.com/bay-area-hydrogen-shortage-after-explosion/5328775 "Bay Area experiences hydrogen shortage after explosion"], ABC news, June 3, 2019</ref> | | Leak in transfer hose.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://abc7news.com/5326601/|title=Hydrogen explosion shakes Santa Clara neighborhood|date=2019-06-02|website=ABC7 San Francisco|language=en|access-date=2019-06-12}}</ref> This resulted in the temporary shutdown of multiple hydrogen fueling stations in the San Francisco area.<ref>Woodrow, Melanie. [https://abc7news.com/bay-area-hydrogen-shortage-after-explosion/5328775 "Bay Area experiences hydrogen shortage after explosion"], ABC news, June 3, 2019</ref> | ||
|- | |- | ||
| 2019-06 | | 2019-06 | ||
| | | नॉर्वे | ||
| A [[Uno-X]] fueling station experienced an explosion,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://qz.com/1641276/a-hydrogen-fueling-station-explodes-in-norways-baerum/|title=A hydrogen fueling station explosion in Norway has left fuel-cell cars nowhere to charge|last=Huang|first=Echo|website=Quartz|language=en|access-date=2019-06-12}}</ref> resulting in the shutdown of all Uno-X hydrogen fueling stations and a temporary halt in sales of fuel cell vehicles in the country.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://evtalk.co.nz/exploding-hydrogen-station-leads-to-fcv-halt/| title=Exploding hydrogen station leads to FCV halt| publisher=EV Talk| first=Geoff| last=Dobson| date=12 June 2019}}</ref> | | A [[Uno-X]] fueling station experienced an explosion,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://qz.com/1641276/a-hydrogen-fueling-station-explodes-in-norways-baerum/|title=A hydrogen fueling station explosion in Norway has left fuel-cell cars nowhere to charge|last=Huang|first=Echo|website=Quartz|language=en|access-date=2019-06-12}}</ref> resulting in the shutdown of all Uno-X hydrogen fueling stations and a temporary halt in sales of fuel cell vehicles in the country.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://evtalk.co.nz/exploding-hydrogen-station-leads-to-fcv-halt/| title=Exploding hydrogen station leads to FCV halt| publisher=EV Talk| first=Geoff| last=Dobson| date=12 June 2019}}</ref> | ||
| Investigations determined that neither the electrolyzer nor the dispenser used by customers had anything to do with this incident.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.gasworld.com/preliminary-findings-from-h2-station-investigation/2017360.article|title=Preliminary findings from H2 station investigation|last=Sampson2019-06-13T12:02:00+01:00|first=Joanna|website=gasworld|language=en|access-date=2019-06-14}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/tech/2019/06/419_270577.html|title=Moon's 'hydrogen diplomacy' tarnished by charging station explosion|date=2019-06-13|website=koreatimes|language=en|access-date=2019-06-14}}</ref> Instead, [[Nel ASA]] announced the root cause of the incident had been identified as an assembly error of the use of a specific plug in a hydrogen tank in the high-pressure storage unit.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://news.cision.com/nel-asa/r/nel-asa--status-update--5-regarding-incident-at-kjorbo,c2852275|title=Nel ASA: Status update #5 regarding incident at Kjørbo|website=News Powered by Cision|language=en|access-date=2019-07-01}}</ref> | | Investigations determined that neither the electrolyzer nor the dispenser used by customers had anything to do with this incident.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.gasworld.com/preliminary-findings-from-h2-station-investigation/2017360.article|title=Preliminary findings from H2 station investigation|last=Sampson2019-06-13T12:02:00+01:00|first=Joanna|website=gasworld|language=en|access-date=2019-06-14}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/tech/2019/06/419_270577.html|title=Moon's 'hydrogen diplomacy' tarnished by charging station explosion|date=2019-06-13|website=koreatimes|language=en|access-date=2019-06-14}}</ref> Instead, [[Nel ASA]] announced the root cause of the incident had been identified as an assembly error of the use of a specific plug in a hydrogen tank in the high-pressure storage unit.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://news.cision.com/nel-asa/r/nel-asa--status-update--5-regarding-incident-at-kjorbo,c2852275|title=Nel ASA: Status update #5 regarding incident at Kjørbo|website=News Powered by Cision|language=en|access-date=2019-07-01}}</ref> | ||
|- | |- | ||
| 2019-12 | | 2019-12 | ||
| | | [[Waukesha (village), Wisconsin|विस्कॉन्सिन, वौकेशा]] में एक [[Airgas|एयरगैस]] सुविधा | ||
| A gas explosion injured one worker and caused 2 hydrogen storage tanks to leak.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://abc7chicago.com/5751671/|title=VIDEO: 1 injured after explosion at Waukesha gas company|date=2019-12-13|website=ABC7 Chicago|language=en|access-date=2019-12-15}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.startribune.com/gas-explosion-injures-1-worker-in-waukesha/566167141/|title=Gas explosion injures 1 worker in Waukesha|website=Star Tribune|access-date=2019-12-15}}</ref> | | A gas explosion injured one worker and caused 2 hydrogen storage tanks to leak.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://abc7chicago.com/5751671/|title=VIDEO: 1 injured after explosion at Waukesha gas company|date=2019-12-13|website=ABC7 Chicago|language=en|access-date=2019-12-15}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.startribune.com/gas-explosion-injures-1-worker-in-waukesha/566167141/|title=Gas explosion injures 1 worker in Waukesha|website=Star Tribune|access-date=2019-12-15}}</ref> | ||
| Unknown.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.jsonline.com/story/communities/waukesha/news/waukesha/2019/12/12/explosion-rocks-airgas-waukesha-cause-unclear/4412254002/|title='A massive boom': Explosion at Waukesha gas company reverberated through the city and left one injured|last=Riccioli|first=Jim|website=Milwaukee Journal Sentinel|language=en|access-date=2019-12-15}}</ref> | | Unknown.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.jsonline.com/story/communities/waukesha/news/waukesha/2019/12/12/explosion-rocks-airgas-waukesha-cause-unclear/4412254002/|title='A massive boom': Explosion at Waukesha gas company reverberated through the city and left one injured|last=Riccioli|first=Jim|website=Milwaukee Journal Sentinel|language=en|access-date=2019-12-15}}</ref> | ||
|- | |- | ||
| 2020-04-07 | | 2020-04-07 | ||
| | | [[Long View, North Carolina|लॉन्ग व्यू, उत्तरी कैरोलिना]] में वनएच2 हाइड्रोजन ईंधन संयंत्र | ||
| An explosion caused significant damage to surrounding buildings. The blast was felt several miles away, damaging about 60 homes. No injuries from the explosion were reported. | | An explosion caused significant damage to surrounding buildings. The blast was felt several miles away, damaging about 60 homes. No injuries from the explosion were reported. | ||
| The incident remains under investigation.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Explosion at hydrogen fuel plant in US damages around 60 buildings|url=http://www.hazardexonthenet.net/article/177803/Explosion-at-hydrogen-fuel-plant-in-US-damages-around-60-buildings.aspx|website=www.hazardexonthenet.net|access-date=2020-05-07}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=60 homes damaged after hydrogen plant explosion|url=https://www.gasworld.com/60-homes-damaged-after-hydrogen-plant-explosion/2018832.article|last=Burgess2020-04-08T11:51:00+01:00|first=Molly|website=gasworld|language=en|access-date=2020-05-07}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=OneH2: Hydrogen plant explosion update|url=https://www.gasworld.com/oneh2-hydrogen-plant-explosion-update/2018846.article|last=Burgess2020-04-14T08:20:00+01:00|first=Molly|website=gasworld|language=en|access-date=2020-05-07}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=One of the Country's Only Hydrogen Fuel Cell Plants Suffers Huge Explosion|url=https://www.vice.com/en_us/article/y3m9ab/one-of-the-countrys-only-hydrogen-fuel-cell-plants-suffers-huge-explosion|last=Koebler|first=Jason|date=2020-04-07|website=Vice|language=en|access-date=2020-05-07}}</ref> The company published a press release: Hydrogen Safety Systems Operated Effectively, Prevented Injury at Plant Explosion.<ref>{{Cite web|date=April 10, 2020|title=HYDROGEN SAFETY SYSTEMS OPERATED EFFECTIVELY, PREVENTED INJURY AT PLANT EXPLOSION|url=https://www.oneh2.com/Final%20OneH2%20news%20release_2.pdf|access-date=29 November 2020|website=oneh2.com}}</ref> | | The incident remains under investigation.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Explosion at hydrogen fuel plant in US damages around 60 buildings|url=http://www.hazardexonthenet.net/article/177803/Explosion-at-hydrogen-fuel-plant-in-US-damages-around-60-buildings.aspx|website=www.hazardexonthenet.net|access-date=2020-05-07}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=60 homes damaged after hydrogen plant explosion|url=https://www.gasworld.com/60-homes-damaged-after-hydrogen-plant-explosion/2018832.article|last=Burgess2020-04-08T11:51:00+01:00|first=Molly|website=gasworld|language=en|access-date=2020-05-07}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=OneH2: Hydrogen plant explosion update|url=https://www.gasworld.com/oneh2-hydrogen-plant-explosion-update/2018846.article|last=Burgess2020-04-14T08:20:00+01:00|first=Molly|website=gasworld|language=en|access-date=2020-05-07}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=One of the Country's Only Hydrogen Fuel Cell Plants Suffers Huge Explosion|url=https://www.vice.com/en_us/article/y3m9ab/one-of-the-countrys-only-hydrogen-fuel-cell-plants-suffers-huge-explosion|last=Koebler|first=Jason|date=2020-04-07|website=Vice|language=en|access-date=2020-05-07}}</ref> The company published a press release: Hydrogen Safety Systems Operated Effectively, Prevented Injury at Plant Explosion.<ref>{{Cite web|date=April 10, 2020|title=HYDROGEN SAFETY SYSTEMS OPERATED EFFECTIVELY, PREVENTED INJURY AT PLANT EXPLOSION|url=https://www.oneh2.com/Final%20OneH2%20news%20release_2.pdf|access-date=29 November 2020|website=oneh2.com}}</ref> | ||
|- | |- | ||
| 2020-06-11 | | 2020-06-11 | ||
| [[Praxair]] | | [[Praxair|प्रेक्सेयर]] इंक., 703 6वां सेंट [[Texas City, Texas|टेक्सास सिटी, टेक्सास]] | ||
| An explosion occurred at the hydrogen production plant. | | An explosion occurred at the hydrogen production plant. | ||
| No further details<ref>{{Cite web|title=Praxair Texas City Hydrogen Plant Explosion|website="Zehl & Associates"|date=2020-06-12|access-date=2020-06-20 |url=https://www.zehllaw.com/texas-city-praxair-hydrogen-complex-explosion-injures-1-texas-plant-explosion-lawyer/}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Small industrial explosion rattles Texas City|url=https://www.galvnews.com/news/free/article_7bae9935-83d3-56d9-b467-f13f938f01ff.html|last=Lacombe|first=James|date=2020-06-11|website=Galveston County-The Daily News|language=en|access-date=2020-06-20 | | No further details<ref>{{Cite web|title=Praxair Texas City Hydrogen Plant Explosion|website="Zehl & Associates"|date=2020-06-12|access-date=2020-06-20 |url=https://www.zehllaw.com/texas-city-praxair-hydrogen-complex-explosion-injures-1-texas-plant-explosion-lawyer/}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Small industrial explosion rattles Texas City|url=https://www.galvnews.com/news/free/article_7bae9935-83d3-56d9-b467-f13f938f01ff.html|last=Lacombe|first=James|date=2020-06-11|website=Galveston County-The Daily News|language=en|access-date=2020-06-20 | ||
Line 164: | Line 164: | ||
|- | |- | ||
| 2020-09-30 | | 2020-09-30 | ||
| [[Changhua]] | | [[Changhua|चांगहुआ]] सिटी, ताइवान | ||
| A hydrogen tanker crashed and exploded, killing the driver. | | A hydrogen tanker crashed and exploded, killing the driver. | ||
| Vehicle crash<ref>{{Cite web|last=Charlier|first=Phillip|date=2020-09-30|title=Hydrogen tanker crashes and explodes on freeway in Changhua City|url=https://taiwanenglishnews.com/hydrogen-tanker-crashes-and-explodes-on-freeway-in-changhua-city/|access-date=2020-11-26|website=Taiwan English News|language=en-US}}</ref> | | Vehicle crash<ref>{{Cite web|last=Charlier|first=Phillip|date=2020-09-30|title=Hydrogen tanker crashes and explodes on freeway in Changhua City|url=https://taiwanenglishnews.com/hydrogen-tanker-crashes-and-explodes-on-freeway-in-changhua-city/|access-date=2020-11-26|website=Taiwan English News|language=en-US}}</ref> | ||
|- | |- | ||
| 2021-08-09 | | 2021-08-09 | ||
| [[Medupi Power Station]] | | दक्षिण अफ्रीका में | ||
[[Medupi Power Station|मेडुपी पावर स्टेशन]] | |||
| An explosion in Unit 4 of the plant | | An explosion in Unit 4 of the plant | ||
| Improper operator procedure while the generator was being purged of hydrogen<ref>{{Cite web|last=Parkinson|first=Giles|date=2021-08-11|title=World’s newest and most expensive coal plant explodes after hydrogen leak|url=https://reneweconomy.com.au/worlds-newest-and-most-expensive-coal-plant-explodes-after-hydrogen-leak/|access-date=2021-10-11|website=RenewEconomy|language=en-AU}}</ref> | | Improper operator procedure while the generator was being purged of hydrogen<ref>{{Cite web|last=Parkinson|first=Giles|date=2021-08-11|title=World’s newest and most expensive coal plant explodes after hydrogen leak|url=https://reneweconomy.com.au/worlds-newest-and-most-expensive-coal-plant-explodes-after-hydrogen-leak/|access-date=2021-10-11|website=RenewEconomy|language=en-AU}}</ref> | ||
|- | |- | ||
| 2022-02-25 | | 2022-02-25 | ||
| [[Detroit MI]] | | [[Detroit MI|डेट्रायट एमआई]] | ||
| A hydrogen tank for a balloon in a pick-up truck bed exploded. | | A hydrogen tank for a balloon in a pick-up truck bed exploded. | ||
| The Detroit Fire Department believes a leak in the hydrogen tank caused the explosion. | | The Detroit Fire Department believes a leak in the hydrogen tank caused the explosion. | ||
Line 180: | Line 181: | ||
|- | |- | ||
| 2022-04-22 | | 2022-04-22 | ||
| [[Towanda. PA]] | | [[Towanda. PA|टोवांडा. पीए]] | ||
| A hydrogen tank at [[Global Tungsten & Powders Corp.]] exploded. A spokesperson for the company said five employees were taken to hospitals with non-life-threatening injuries. | | A hydrogen tank at [[Global Tungsten & Powders Corp.]] exploded. A spokesperson for the company said five employees were taken to hospitals with non-life-threatening injuries. | ||
| OSHA and company officials are investigating the incident. | | OSHA and company officials are investigating the incident. |
Revision as of 19:35, 7 February 2023
हाइड्रोजन सुरक्षा में हाइड्रोजन, विशेष रूप से हाइड्रोजन गैस ईंधन और तरल हाइड्रोजन के सुरक्षित उत्पादन, संचालन और उपयोग को सम्मलित किया गया है।
ज्वलनशीलता पैमाने पर हाइड्रोजन के पास एनएफपीए 704 की उच्चतम रेटिंग 4 है क्योंकि यह सामान्य हवा के साथ थोड़ी मात्रा में मिश्रित होने पर भी ज्वलनशील होता है; प्रज्वलन हवा में ऑक्सीजन और प्रतिक्रिया की सादगी और रासायनिक गुणों के कारण हाइड्रोजन से हवा के 4% तक कम अनुपात में हो सकता है। हालांकि, प्रतिक्रियाशीलता (रसायन विज्ञान) या विषाक्तता के लिए जन्मजात खतरे के लिए हाइड्रोजन की कोई रेटिंग नहीं है। गैसीय ईंधन, कम ऊर्जा दहन, ज्वलनशील ईंधन-वायु मिश्रण की विस्तृत श्रृंखला, उछाल, और हाइड्रोजन उत्सर्जन की क्षमता के रूप में रिसाव की आसानी के कारण हाइड्रोजन का भंडारण और उपयोग अद्वितीय चुनौतियों का सामना करता है जिसका सुरक्षित संचालन सुनिश्चित करने के लिए हिसाब होना चाहिए।[1]
तरल हाइड्रोजन इसके बढ़े हुए घनत्व और इसे तरल रूप में रखने के लिए आवश्यक बेहद कम तापमान के कारण अतिरिक्त चुनौतियां पेश करता है। इसके अलावा, उद्योग में इसकी मांग और उपयोग- रॉकेट ईंधन, हाइड्रोजन अर्थव्यवस्था, हाइड्रोजन-ठंडा टर्बो जनरेटर के लिए शीतलक, औद्योगिक और रासायनिक प्रक्रियाओं में एक फीडस्टॉक जिसमें हैबर प्रक्रिया और मेथनॉल आदि शामिल हैं- में वृद्धि जारी है, जिसके कारण हाइड्रोजन के भंडारण, स्थानांतरण और उपयोग में सुरक्षा प्रोटोकॉल के विचारों के महत्व में वृद्धि हुई।[1]
NFPA 704 fire diamond | |
---|---|
रोकथाम
हाइड्रोजन से निपटने के दौरान दुर्घटनाओं से बचने के लिए डिजाइन सिस्टम और प्रक्रियाओं में मदद करने के लिए कई मदों पर विचार किया जाना चाहिए, क्योंकि हाइड्रोजन के प्राथमिक खतरों में से एक यह है कि यह अत्यंत ज्वलनशील है।[4]
जड़ना और शुद्ध करना
हाइड्रोजन को स्थानांतरित करते समय इनर्टिंग कक्षों को निष्क्रिय करना और गैस लाइनों को शुद्ध करना महत्वपूर्ण मानक सुरक्षा प्रक्रियाएं हैं। और ठीक से निष्क्रिय या शुद्ध करने के लिए, ज्वलनशीलता की सीमा को ध्यान में रखा जाना चाहिए, और हाइड्रोजन अन्य प्रकार की गैसों से बहुत अलग हैं। सामान्य वायुमंडलीय दबाव में यह 4% से 75% है, और ऑक्सीजन में हाइड्रोजन के आयतन प्रतिशत के आधार पर यह 4% से 94% है, जबकि हवा में हाइड्रोजन के विस्फोट की सीमा मात्रा के हिसाब से 18.3% से 59% है।[1][5][6][7] वास्तव में, ज्वलनशीलता की ये सीमाएँ अक्सर इससे अधिक कठोर हो सकती हैं, क्योंकि आग के दौरान होने वाली अशांति एक अपस्फीति का कारण बन सकती है जो विस्फोट पैदा कर सकती है। तुलना के लिए हवा में गैसोलीन की अपस्फीति सीमा 1.4-7.6% और हवा में एसिटिलीन की 2.5%-82% है।[8]
इसलिए, जब उपकरण हाइड्रोजन के हस्तांतरण से पहले या बाद में हवा के लिए खुला होता है, तो ध्यान में रखने के लिए अनूठी स्थितियां होती हैं जो अन्यथा अन्य प्रकार की गैसों को स्थानांतरित करने के लिए सुरक्षित होतीं। घटनाएं घटी हैं क्योंकि जड़ना या शुद्ध करना पर्याप्त नहीं था, या क्योंकि उपकरण में हवा की शुरूआत को कम करके आंका गया था (उदाहरण के लिए, पाउडर जोड़ते समय), जिसके परिणामस्वरूप विस्फोट हुआ।[9]इस कारण से, निष्क्रिय करने या शुद्ध करने की प्रक्रिया और उपकरण अक्सर हाइड्रोजन के लिए अद्वितीय होते हैं, और अक्सर यह सुनिश्चित करने के लिए हाइड्रोजन लाइन पर फिटिंग या अंकन पूरी तरह से अलग होना चाहिए कि यह और अन्य प्रक्रियाओं का ठीक से पालन किया जाता है, क्योंकि कई विस्फोट केवल इसलिए हुए हैं क्योंकि हाइड्रोजन लाइन गलती से मेन लाइन में लग गई थी या क्योंकि हाइड्रोजन लाइन दूसरी लाइन से उलझ गई थी।[10][11][12]
इग्निशन स्रोत प्रबंधन
हवा में हाइड्रोजन की न्यूनतम प्रज्वलन ऊर्जा 0.02 mJ पर ज्ञात पदार्थों में से सबसे कम है, और हाइड्रोजन-वायु मिश्रण गैसोलीन-वायु मिश्रण को प्रज्वलित करने के 1/10 प्रयास से प्रज्वलित हो सकता है।[1][5] इस वजह से, किसी भी संभावित ज्वलन स्रोत की छानबीन की जानी चाहिए। किसी भी विद्युत उपकरण, बंधन, या जमीन को खतरनाक क्षेत्रों में वर्गीकरण की आवश्यकता में लागू विद्युत उपकरण को पूरा करना चाहिए।[13][14] कोई भी संभावित स्रोत (जैसे कुछ वेंटिलेशन सिस्टम डिज़ाइन[15]) स्थैतिक बिजली निर्माण के लिए इसी तरह न्यूनतम किया जाना चाहिए, उदा. एंटीस्टेटिक उपकरणों के माध्यम से।[16]
तप्त कर्म प्रक्रियाएं मजबूत, व्यापक और अच्छी तरह से लागू होनी चाहिए; और उन्हें उच्च क्षेत्रों को शुद्ध और हवादार करना चाहिए और काम से पहले वातावरण का नमूना लेना चाहिए। छत पर लगे उपकरण को इसी तरह खतरनाक क्षेत्र की आवश्यकताओं (एनएफपीए 497) को पूरा करना चाहिए।[9] अंत में, टूटी डिस्क का उपयोग नहीं किया जाना चाहिए क्योंकि यह कई विस्फोटों और आग के लिए एक सामान्य प्रज्वलन स्रोत रहा है। इसके बजाय अन्य दबाव राहत प्रणाली जैसे राहत वाल्व का उपयोग किया जाना चाहिए।[17][18]
यांत्रिक अखंडता और प्रतिक्रियाशील रसायन विज्ञान
हाइड्रोजन के साथ काम करते समय चार मुख्य रासायनिक गुण हैं जो सामान्य वायुमंडलीय दबाव और तापमान में भी अन्य सामग्रियों के संपर्क में आ सकते हैं:
- हाइड्रोजन का रसायन पारंपरिक रसायनों से बहुत अलग है। उदाहरण के लिए, परिवेश वातावरण में ऑक्सीकरण के साथ। और इस अनोखे रसायन की उपेक्षा करने से कुछ रासायनिक संयंत्रों में समस्याएँ पैदा हो गई हैं।[19] और अन्य पहलू पर भी विचार किया जाना चाहिए कि हाइड्रोजन को एक अलग प्रतिक्रिया के उपोत्पाद के रूप में उत्पन्न किया जा सकता है, जिसे अनदेखा किया जा सकता है, उदा। जिरकोनियम मिश्र धातु भाप द्वारा जिरकोनियम का ऑक्सीकरण।[20][21] निष्क्रिय ऑटोकैटलिटिक रिकॉम्बिनर्स के उपयोग के माध्यम से इस खतरे को कुछ हद तक कम किया जा सकता है।
- विचार करने के लिए एक अन्य प्रमुख मुद्दा इस्पात जैसी अन्य सामान्य निर्माण सामग्री के साथ हाइड्रोजन की रासायनिक अनुकूलता है।[22][23] हाइड्रोजन उत्सर्जन के कारण, हाइड्रोजन के साथ सामग्री की अनुकूलता पर विशेष रूप से विचार किया जाता है।
- उच्च तापमान हाइड्रोजन हमले पर विशेष प्रतिक्रियाओं के कारण ये विचार आगे बदल सकते हैं।
- हाइड्रोजन का प्रसार सामान्य गैसों से बहुत अलग है, और इसलिए गैसकेटिंग सामग्री को सावधानी से चुना जाना चाहिए।[24][25]
इन सभी चार कारकों को हाइड्रोजन का उपयोग करते हुए एक प्रणाली के प्रारंभिक डिजाइन के दौरान माना जाता है, और आमतौर पर निर्माण, वेल्डिंग और स्थापना के दौरान अतिसंवेदनशील धातुओं और हाइड्रोजन के बीच संपर्क को सीमित करके, या तो रिक्ति, इलेक्ट्रोप्लेटिंग, सतह की सफाई, सामग्री की पसंद और गुणवत्ता आश्वासन द्वारा पूरा किया जाता है। अन्यथा विशेष निगरानी उपकरण द्वारा हाइड्रोजन क्षति का प्रबंधन और पता लगाया जा सकता है।[26][9]
लीक और फ्लेम डिटेक्शन सिस्टम
हाइड्रोजन स्रोतों और हाइड्रोजन पाइपिंग के स्थानों को सावधानी से चुना जाना चाहिए। चूँकि हाइड्रोजन हवा से हल्की गैस है, यह छतों और ओवरहैंग्स के नीचे इकट्ठा हो जाती है, जहाँ यह विस्फोट का खतरा पैदा करती है। बहुत से लोग पौधों को हवा से भारी वाष्प से बचाने से परिचित हैं, लेकिन वे ऊपर देखने से अपरिचित हैं, और इसलिए विशेष रूप से ध्यान देने योग्य हैं (उदाहरण के लिए, उछाल के कारण, बड़े भंडारण टैंक के शीर्ष के पास तनाव अक्सर स्पष्ट होते हैं [27]). यह पाइपों में भी प्रवेश कर सकता है और उनके गंतव्यों तक उनका अनुसरण कर सकता है। इस वजह से, इस घटना को रोकने के लिए हाइड्रोजन पाइपों को अच्छी तरह से लेबल किया जाना चाहिए और अन्य पाइपों के ऊपर स्थित होना चाहिए।[4][9]
यहां तक कि उचित डिजाइन के साथ, हाइड्रोजन रिसाव बहुत कम प्रवाह दर पर दहन का समर्थन कर सकता है, जो कि 4 माइक्रोग्राम/एस जितना कम है।[1][28][6] इसके लिए, पता लगाना महत्वपूर्ण है। हाइड्रोजन सेंसर हाइड्रोजन लीक का तेजी से पता लगाने की अनुमति देते हैं ताकि यह सुनिश्चित किया जा सके कि हाइड्रोजन को बाहर निकाला जा सके और रिसाव के स्रोत को ट्रैक किया जा सके। कुछ खास पाइपों या स्थानों के आसपास विशेष टेप को हाइड्रोजन का पता लगाने के उद्देश्यों के लिए जोड़ा जा सकता है। एक पारंपरिक तरीका गैस के साथ हाइड्रोजन गंधक जोड़ना है जैसा कि प्राकृतिक गैस के साथ आम है। ईंधन सेल अनुप्रयोगों में ये गंधक ईंधन कोशिकाओं को दूषित कर सकते हैं, लेकिन शोधकर्ता अन्य तरीकों की जांच कर रहे हैं जिनका उपयोग हाइड्रोजन डिटेक्शन ट्रैसर, नई गंध वाली तकनीक, उन्नत सेंसर और अन्य के लिए किया जा सकता है।[1]
जबकि हाइड्रोजन की लपटों को नग्न आंखों से देखना कठिन हो सकता है (इसमें एक तथाकथित अदृश्य ज्वाला हो सकती है), वे यूवी/आईआर लौ डिटेक्टरों पर आसानी से दिखाई देती हैं। हाल ही में मल्टी आईआर डिटेक्टर विकसित किए गए हैं, जो हाइड्रोजन-फ्लेम्स पर और भी तेजी से पता लगा सकते हैं।[29][30] हाइड्रोजन की आग से लड़ने में यह काफी महत्वपूर्ण है, क्योंकि आग से लड़ने का पसंदीदा तरीका रिसाव के स्रोत को रोकना है, क्योंकि कुछ मामलों में (अर्थात्, क्रायोजेनिक हाइड्रोजन) स्रोत को सीधे पानी से भिगोने से आइसिंग हो सकती है, जो बदले में द्वितीयक फटने का कारण बन सकती है।[31][27]
वेंटिलेशन और जगमगाता हुआ
ज्वलनशीलता की चिंताओं के अलावा, संलग्न स्थानों में, हाइड्रोजन एक दम घुटने वाली गैस के रूप में भी कार्य कर सकता है।[1] इसलिए, किसी को यह सुनिश्चित करना चाहिए कि दोनों मुद्दों से निपटने के लिए उचित वेंटिलेशन होना चाहिए, क्योंकि यह आम तौर पर वातावरण में हाइड्रोजन को वेंट करने के लिए सुरक्षित है। हालांकि, इस तरह के वेंटिलेशन सिस्टम को रखने और डिजाइन करते समय, किसी को यह ध्यान रखना चाहिए कि हाइड्रोजन फर्श की बजाय छत और संरचनाओं की चोटियों की ओर जमा हो जाएगी। कई खतरों को इस तथ्य से कम किया जा सकता है कि हाइड्रोजन तेजी से उगता है और अक्सर प्रज्वलन से पहले फैल जाता है।[32][9]
कुछ आपातकालीन या रखरखाव की स्थितियों में, हाइड्रोजन गैस भड़कना भी हो सकता है।[33] उदाहरण के लिए, कुछ हाइड्रोजन-संचालित वाहनों में एक सुरक्षा विशेषता यह है कि यदि टैंक में आग लगी हो तो वे ईंधन को भड़का सकते हैं, वाहन को थोड़ा नुकसान पहुंचाते हुए पूरी तरह से जल जाते हैं, इसके विपरीत गैसोलीन-ईंधन वाले वाहन में अपेक्षित परिणाम होता है।[34]
इन्वेंटरी प्रबंधन और फैसिलिटी स्पेसिंग
आदर्श रूप से, कोई आग या विस्फोट नहीं होगा, लेकिन सुविधा को इस तरह से डिज़ाइन किया जाना चाहिए कि अगर आकस्मिक आग लग जाए, तो यह अतिरिक्त नुकसान को कम कर देता हैं। उक्त भंडारण इकाइयों के दबाव (c.f., NFPA 2 और 55) के साथ हाइड्रोजन भंडारण इकाइयों के बीच न्यूनतम पृथक्करण दूरी पर विचार किया जाना चाहिए। एक्सप्लोजन वेंटिंग की व्यवस्था की जानी चाहिए ताकि सुविधा के अन्य भागों को नुकसान न पहुंचे। कुछ स्थितियों में, एक छत जिसे विस्फोट में बाकी संरचना से सुरक्षित रूप से उड़ाया जा सकता है।[9]
क्रायोजेनिक
तरल हाइड्रोजन में अन्य क्रायोजेनिक रसायनों की तुलना में थोड़ा अलग रसायन होता है, क्योंकि ट्रेस संचित हवा तरल हाइड्रोजन को आसानी से दूषित कर सकती है और ट्रिनिट्रोटोलुइन और अन्य अत्यधिक विस्फोटक सामग्री के समान विस्फोटक क्षमताओं के साथ एक अस्थिर मिश्रण बना सकती है। इस वजह से, तरल हाइड्रोजन को जटिल भंडारण तकनीक की आवश्यकता होती है जैसे कि विशेष थर्मली इंसुलेटेड कंटेनर और सभी क्रायोजेनिक पदार्थों के लिए विशेष हैंडलिंग की आवश्यकता होती है। यह समान है, लेकिन तरल ऑक्सीजन से अधिक गंभीर है। थर्मली इंसुलेटेड कंटेनरों के साथ भी इतना कम तापमान रखना मुश्किल है, और हाइड्रोजन धीरे-धीरे दूर हो जाएगी। (आमतौर पर यह प्रति दिन 1% की दर से वाष्पित हो जाएगा)।[1][35]
क्रायोजेनिक हाइड्रोजन के साथ मुख्य खतरा ब्लेव (उबलते तरल विस्तार वाष्प विस्फोट) के रूप में जाना जाता है। क्योंकि हाइड्रोजन वायुमंडलीय स्थितियों में गैसीय है, जो तेजी से चरण परिवर्तन एक साथ विस्फोट ऊर्जा के साथ मिलकर अधिक खतरनाक स्थिति पैदा करता है।[36]
मानवीय कारक
पारंपरिक नौकरी सुरक्षा प्रशिक्षण के साथ, आमतौर पर छोड़े गए चरणों (जैसे, कार्य क्षेत्र में उच्च बिंदुओं का परीक्षण) को रोकने में मदद करने के लिए चेकलिस्ट को अक्सर लागू किया जाता है, साथ ही स्थितिजन्य खतरों पर निर्देश जो हाइड्रोजन के साथ काम करने के लिए निहित होते हैं।[9][37]
घटनाएं
दिनांक | स्थान | हानियाँ | संदिग्ध कारण |
---|---|---|---|
1937-05-06 | नेवल एयर स्टेशन लेकहर्स्ट | As the zeppelin Hindenburg was approaching landing, a fire detonated one of the aft hydrogen cells, thereby rupturing neighboring cells and causing the airship to fall to the ground aft-first. The inferno then travelled towards the stern, bursting and igniting the remaining cells. | Despite 4 news stations recording the disaster on film and surviving eyewitness testimonies from crew and people on the ground, the cause of the initial fire was never conclusively determined.[citation needed] |
1986-01-28 | कैनेडी स्पेस सेंटर | A large LH2 tank ruptured and exploded, killing all 7 astronauts aboard the Space Shuttle Challenger | A faulty O-ring on the solid rocket booster allowed hot gases and flames to impinge upon the external LH2 tank, causing the tank wall to weaken and then burst. The thrust generated from the contents of the tank caused the LOX tank above to also rupture, and this mixture of LH2/LOX then detonated, destroying the orbiter in the explosion. |
1999 | हानाऊ, जर्मनी | A large chemical tank used to store hydrogen for manufacturing processes exploded. | The tank was designed to lie on its side, but instead was laid upright. The forces towards the top of the tank caused it to rupture and then explode.[27] |
2007-01 | मस्किंगम नदी कोयला संयंत्र (एईपी के स्वामित्व और संचालित) | An explosion of compressed hydrogen during delivery at the Muskingum River Coal Plant caused significant damage and killed one person.[38][39][40] | A premature rupture of a pressure relief disc used for the compressed hydrogen cooling system.[41] |
2011 | फुकुशिमा, जापान | Three reactor buildings were damaged by hydrogen explosions. | Exposed Zircaloy cladded fuel rods became very hot and reacted with steam, releasing hydrogen.[42][43] The containments were filled with inert nitrogen, which prevented hydrogen from burning in the containment. However, the hydrogen leaked from the containment into the reactor building, where it mixed with air and exploded.[44] To prevent further explosions, vent holes were opened in the top of the remaining reactor buildings. |
2015 | ताइवान में फॉर्मोसा प्लास्टिक समूह रिफाइनरी | Chemical plant explosion | Due to hydrogen leaking from a pipe[45] |
2018-02-12 1:20 p.m. | डायमंड बार, लॉस एंजिल्स, सीए का एक उपनगर | On the way to an FCV hydrogen station, a truck carrying about 24 compressed hydrogen tanks caught fire. This caused the evacuation initially of a one-mile radius area of Diamond Bar. The fire broke out on the truck at about 1:20 p.m. at the intersection of South Brea Canyon Road and Golden Springs Drive, according to a Los Angeles County Fire Department dispatcher.[46][47][48][49] | The National Transportation Safety Board has launched an investigation.[50] |
2018-08 | वेरीदम एल काजोन, सीए | A delivery truck carrying liquid hydrogen caught fire at Veridiam manufacturing plant.[51] in El Cajon CA.[52] | It is not known what caused the explosion.[53] |
2019-05 | वाउकेगन, इलिनोइस में एबी स्पेशलिटी सिलिकॉन | An explosion killed four workers and seriously injured a fifth. | Operator error adding an incorrect ingredient[54][19] |
2019-05-23 | गैंगवॉन टेक्नोपार्क, गंगनुंग, दक्षिण कोरिया | A hydrogen tank exploded killing 2 and injuring 6.[55][56] | Oxygen seeped into the hydrogen storage tanks.[57] |
2019-06 | वायु उत्पाद और रसायन सुविधा सांता क्लारा, सीए में | Tanker truck explosion damaging surrounding hydrogen transfill facility | Leak in transfer hose.[58] This resulted in the temporary shutdown of multiple hydrogen fueling stations in the San Francisco area.[59] |
2019-06 | नॉर्वे | A Uno-X fueling station experienced an explosion,[60] resulting in the shutdown of all Uno-X hydrogen fueling stations and a temporary halt in sales of fuel cell vehicles in the country.[61] | Investigations determined that neither the electrolyzer nor the dispenser used by customers had anything to do with this incident.[62][63] Instead, Nel ASA announced the root cause of the incident had been identified as an assembly error of the use of a specific plug in a hydrogen tank in the high-pressure storage unit.[64] |
2019-12 | विस्कॉन्सिन, वौकेशा में एक एयरगैस सुविधा | A gas explosion injured one worker and caused 2 hydrogen storage tanks to leak.[65][66] | Unknown.[67] |
2020-04-07 | लॉन्ग व्यू, उत्तरी कैरोलिना में वनएच2 हाइड्रोजन ईंधन संयंत्र | An explosion caused significant damage to surrounding buildings. The blast was felt several miles away, damaging about 60 homes. No injuries from the explosion were reported. | The incident remains under investigation.[68][69][70][71] The company published a press release: Hydrogen Safety Systems Operated Effectively, Prevented Injury at Plant Explosion.[72] |
2020-06-11 | प्रेक्सेयर इंक., 703 6वां सेंट टेक्सास सिटी, टेक्सास | An explosion occurred at the hydrogen production plant. | No further details[73][74] |
2020-09-30 | चांगहुआ सिटी, ताइवान | A hydrogen tanker crashed and exploded, killing the driver. | Vehicle crash[75] |
2021-08-09 | दक्षिण अफ्रीका में | An explosion in Unit 4 of the plant | Improper operator procedure while the generator was being purged of hydrogen[76] |
2022-02-25 | डेट्रायट एमआई | A hydrogen tank for a balloon in a pick-up truck bed exploded. | The Detroit Fire Department believes a leak in the hydrogen tank caused the explosion. |
2022-04-22 | टोवांडा. पीए | A hydrogen tank at Global Tungsten & Powders Corp. exploded. A spokesperson for the company said five employees were taken to hospitals with non-life-threatening injuries. | OSHA and company officials are investigating the incident. |
हाइड्रोजन कोड और मानक
हाइड्रोजन ईंधन सेल वाहनों, स्थिर ईंधन सेल अनुप्रयोगों और पोर्टेबल ईंधन सेल अनुप्रयोगों के लिए हाइड्रोजन कोड और मानक कोड (कानून) और तकनीकी मानक (RCS) हैं।
हाइड्रोजन प्रौद्योगिकी उत्पादों के लिए कोड और मानकों के अतिरिक्त, हाइड्रोजन की सुरक्षित हैंडलिंग के लिए हाइड्रोजन सुरक्षा के लिए कोड और मानक हैं[80] और हाइड्रोजन भंडारण। हाइड्रोजन को नियंत्रित करने वाले कुछ प्रमुख कोड और मानकों की सूची इस प्रकार है:
Name of standard | Short title |
---|---|
NFPA 2 | Hydrogen technologies code |
NFPA 30A | Rules for design of refueling stations |
NFPA 50A | Standard for gaseous hydrogen systems at consumer sites |
NFPA 50B | Standard for liquefied hydrogen systems at consumer sites |
NFPA 52 | Compressed Natural Gas Vehicular Fuel Systems Code |
NFPA 57 | Liquefied natural gas vehicular fuel systems standard |
29CFR1910.103 | Gaseous and cryogenic hydrogen handling and storage |
29CFR1910.119 | Process safety management of highly hazardous chemicals |
40CFR68 | Chemical acccident prevention provisions |
49CFR | Regulations on shipping and handling hydrogen gas and cryogenic hydrogen[81][82] |
ISO 13984:1999 | Liquid hydrogen — Land vehicle fuelling system interface |
ISO/AWI 13984 | Liquid Hydrogen Land Vehicle Fueling Protocol |
ISO/AWI 13985 | Liquid hydrogen — Land vehicle fuel tanks |
ISO/CD 14687 | Hydrogen fuel quality — Product specification |
ISO/AWI TR 15916 | Basic considerations for the safety of hydrogen systems |
ISO 16110 | Hydrogen generators using fuel processing technologies |
ISO 16111 | Transportable gas storage devices — Hydrogen absorbed in reversible metal hydride |
ISO/AWI 17268 | Gaseous hydrogen land vehicle refuelling connection devices |
ISO 19880 | Gaseous hydrogen — Fuelling stations |
ISO/AWI 19881 | Gaseous hydrogen — Land vehicle fuel containers |
ISO 19882 | Gaseous hydrogen — Thermally activated pressure relief devices for compressed hydrogen vehicle fuel containers |
ISO/TS 19883 | Safety of pressure swing adsorption systems for hydrogen separation and purification |
ISO/WD 19884 | Gaseous hydrogen — Cylinders and tubes for stationary storage |
ISO/CD 19885 | Gaseous hydrogen — Fuelling protocols for hydrogen-fueled vehicles — Part 1: Design and development process for fueling protocols |
ISO/CD 19887 | Gaseous Hydrogen — Fuel system components for hydrogen fuelled vehicles |
ISO/AWI 22734 | Hydrogen generators using water electrolysis — Industrial, commercial, and residential applications |
ISO/AWI 24078 | Hydrogen in energy systems — Vocabulary |
ISO 26142:2010 | Hydrogen detection apparatus — Stationary applications[83] |
दिशानिर्देश
हाइड्रोजन सुरक्षा दिशानिर्देशों के लिए वर्तमान ANSI/AIAA मानक AIAA G-095-2004, हाइड्रोजन और हाइड्रोजन प्रणालियों की सुरक्षा के लिए मार्गदर्शिका है।[84] चूंकि नासा हाइड्रोजन के दुनिया के सबसे बड़े उपयोगकर्ताओं में से एक रहा है, यह नासा के पहले के दिशानिर्देशों, एनएसएस 1740.16 (8719.16) से विकसित हुआ है।[85] ये दस्तावेज़ हाइड्रोजन द्वारा इसके विभिन्न रूपों में उत्पन्न जोखिमों और उन्हें सुधारने के तरीके दोनों को कवर करते हैं। नासा भी हाइड्रोजन और हाइड्रोजन सिस्टम के लिए सुरक्षा मानक का संदर्भ देता है [86] और हाइड्रोजन अनुप्रयोगों के लिए सोर्सबुक।[87][81]
हाइड्रोजन सुरक्षा दिशानिर्देशों के लिए जिम्मेदार एक अन्य संगठन कंप्रेस्ड गैस एसोसिएशन (CGA) है, जिसमें सामान्य हाइड्रोजन भंडारण को कवर करने वाले अपने स्वयं के कई संदर्भ हैं,[88] पाइपिंग,[89] और वेंटिंग।[90][81]
यह भी देखें
- भंग गैस विश्लेषण
- खतरनाक क्षेत्रों में विद्युत उपकरण
- हाइड्रोजन अर्थव्यवस्था
- धात्विक हाइड्रोजन
- ऑक्सीहाइड्रोजन
- निष्क्रिय ऑटोकैटलिटिक पुनः संयोजक
- कीचड़ हाइड्रोजन
संदर्भ
- ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy. "hydrogen safety" (PDF).
- ↑ "HYDROGEN | CAMEO Chemicals | NOAA". cameochemicals.noaa.gov. Retrieved Nov 29, 2020.
- ↑ "DEUTERIUM | CAMEO Chemicals | NOAA". cameochemicals.noaa.gov. Retrieved Nov 29, 2020.
- ↑ 4.0 4.1 Utgikar, Vivek P; Thiesen, Todd (2005). "Safety of compressed hydrogen fuel tanks: Leakage from stationary vehicles". technology in Society. 27 (3): 315–320. doi:10.1016/j.techsoc.2005.04.005.
- ↑ 5.0 5.1 Lewis, Bernard; Guenther, von Elbe (1961). Combustion, Flames and Explosions of Gases (2nd ed.). New York: Academic Press, Inc. p. 535. ISBN 978-0124467507.
- ↑ 6.0 6.1 Kalyanaraman, M (4 September 2019). "'Only a question of time' until large hydrogen systems are stable". Riviera Maritime Media (in English).
- ↑ Barbalace, Kenneth. "Periodic Table of Elements - Hydrogen - H".
- ↑ MSHA – Safety Hazard Information – Special Hazards of Acetylene Archived 2016-01-22 at the Wayback Machine. Msha.gov. Retrieved on 2012-07-13.
- ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5 9.6 P. E., Sarah Eck, and Michael D. Snyder (December 2021). "Hydrogen Safety Fundamentals". Chemical Engineering Progress. pp. 36–41.
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: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ↑ H2Tools (September 2017). "USE OF "QUICK-DISCONNECT" FITTINGS RESULTS IN LABORATORY INSTRUMENT EXPLOSION". Pacific Northwest National Laboratory.
- ↑ H2Tools (September 2017). "HYDROGEN TUBE TRAILER EXPLOSION". Pacific Northwest National Laboratory.
- ↑ H2Tools (September 2017). "HYDROGEN LAB FIRE". Pacific Northwest National Laboratory.
- ↑ H2Tools (September 2017). "FIRE AT HYDROGEN FUELING STATION". Pacific Northwest National Laboratory.
The initial source of fire was likely a release of hydrogen from a failed weld on a pressure switch.
- ↑ H2Tools (September 2017). "SMALL FIRE IN FUEL CELL TEST STAND". Pacific Northwest National Laboratory.
An electrical short circuit occurred, causing a small electrical fire.
- ↑ H2Tools (September 2017). "INCORRECT RELIEF VALVE SET POINT LEADS TO EXPLOSION". Pacific Northwest National Laboratory.
Contributing cause was poor design of the venting system, which was installed in a horizontal position, causing inadequate venting and buildup of static electricity.
- ↑ H2Tools (September 2017). "FUEL CELL EVAPORATOR PAD FIRE". Pacific Northwest National Laboratory.
One theory presented the possibility of a spark (caused by static electricity) being the source of the ignition that caused the fire. Due to the proximity of the fuel cell unit to a shrink-wrap packaging machine at the time of the incident, this seemed to be a plausible hypothesis.
- ↑ H2Tools (September 2017). "HYDROGEN EXPLOSION DUE TO INADEQUATE MAINTENANCE". Pacific Northwest National Laboratory.
As a corrective action, eliminate burst discs from hydrogen storage assembly. Redesign venting system for the pressure relief valves to prevent or inhibit moisture build up and allow moisture drainage.
- ↑ H2Tools (September 2017). "HYDROGEN EXPLOSION AT COAL-FIRED POWER PLANT". Pacific Northwest National Laboratory.
Explore elimination of rupture disk PRDs and substitution of spring-style relief valves.
- ↑ 19.0 19.1 Abderholden, Frank S. "Waukegan plant explosion that killed four workers was preventable, federal officials say". chicagotribune.com. Retrieved 2020-01-06.
Engineering Systems, Inc. conducted an independent investigation into the root cause of the explosion, which determined the cause to be human error that resulted in the mistaken addition of an erroneous ingredient.
- ↑ Japanese engineers work to contain nuclear reactor damage, Los Angeles Times, March 14, 2011
- ↑ Chernobyl Accident Appendix 1: Sequence of Events Archived 2016-01-14 at the Wayback Machine, World Nuclear Association, November 2009
- ↑ H2Tools (September 2017). "AUTOMATED HYDROGEN BALL VALVE FAILS TO OPEN DUE TO VALVE STEM FAILURE". Pacific Northwest National Laboratory.
valve stem material incompatibility with hydrogen (causing a material weakening) is suspected
- ↑ H2Tools (September 2017). "GASEOUS HYDROGEN LEAK AND EXPLOSION". Pacific Northwest National Laboratory.
A GH2 leak occurred in an underground ASTM A106 Grade B, Schedule XX carbon steel pipe with a 3.5-inch diameter and a 0.6-inch wall thickness. The pipe was coated with coal tar primer and coal tar enamel, wrapped with asbestos felt impregnated with coal tar, coated with a second coat of coal tar enamel, and wrapped in Kraft paper, in accordance with American Water Works Association Standard G203. The source of the leak was an oval hole about 0.15 in x 0.20 in at the inner surface of the pipe and about 2-in in diameter at the outer surface of the pipe. Upon excavation of the pipe, it was noted that the coating was not present at the leak point. This resulted in galvanic corrosion over a 15-year period and the eventual rupture when high-pressure gas was applied to the thin pipe membrane. The pipe was 8 ft 9 in below the concrete pad.
- ↑ "FM Global Hydrogen Datasheets (online): Hydrogen, Data Sheet ID# 7-91". Factory Mutual. April 2021.
- ↑ H2Tools (September 2017). "LEAK ON COMPRESSOR AT FUELING STATION". Pacific Northwest National Laboratory.
This allowed greater movement of the shaft, which led to a shaft seal leaking hydrogen.
- ↑ The Australian Institute for Non Destructive Testing (AINDT), Detection and Quantification of Hydrogen Damage
- ↑ 27.0 27.1 27.2 Schmidtchen, Ulrich (2002-10-02). "EIHP2 META Proceedings DVW" (PDF). EIHP. Brussels: German Hydrogen Association.
- ↑ M.S. Butler, C.W. Moran, Peter B. Sunderland, R.L. Axelbaum, Limits for Hydrogen Leaks that Can Support Stable Flames, International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 34 (2009) 5174–5182.
- ↑ Fire & Gas Technologies, Inc. "IR3 Flame Detector - FlameSpec-IR3-H2".
- ↑ spectrex. "40/40M Multi IR Flame Detector".
- ↑ Piplines and Hazardous Materials Safety Administration - Department of Transportation (2008). "Emergency Response Handbook" (PDF). p. 115. Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 June 2009.
Do not direct water at source of leak or safety devices; icing may occur.
- ↑ Emergency and Continuous Exposure Guidance Levels for Selected Submarine Contaminants. 2008.
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ignored (help) - ↑ "Explosive Lessons in Hydrogen Safety | APPEL Knowledge Services". appel.nasa.gov.
- ↑ "Hydrogen Car Safety Test- Fuel Leak H2 vs. Petrol". Vimeo (in English). Retrieved 2020-05-07.
- ↑ Peter Kushnir. Hydrogen As an Alternative Fuel Archived 2008-08-08 at the Wayback Machine. PB 700-00-3. Vol. 32, Issue 3, May–June 2000. almc.army.mil.
- ↑ H2Tools (September 2017). "LIQUID HYDROGEN TANK BOILING LIQUID EXPANDING VAPOR EXPLOSION (BLEVE) DUE TO WATER-PLUGGED VENT STACK". Pacific Northwest National Laboratory.
Place signs on all liquid hydrogen tanks indicating that no water is to be put on the vent stack.
- ↑ H2Tools (September 2017). "LIQUID HYDROGEN DELIVERY TRUCK OFFLOADING VALVE FAILURE". Pacific Northwest National Laboratory.
- ↑ Williams, Mark (January 8, 2007). "Ohio Power Plant Blast Kills 1, Hurts 9". Associated Press. Retrieved 2008-05-09.
- ↑ "Muskingum River Plant Hydrogen Explosion January 8, 2007" (PDF). American Electric Power. November 11, 2006. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2008-04-09. Retrieved 2008-05-09.
- ↑ "Hydrogen Incident Reporting and Lessons Learned". h2incidents.org.
- ↑ H2Tools (September 2017). "HYDROGEN EXPLOSION AT COAL-FIRED POWER PLANT". Pacific Northwest National Laboratory.
- ↑ Nuclear Fuel Behaviour in Loss-of-coolant Accident (LOCA) Conditions (PDF). Nuclear Energy Agency, OECD. 2009. p. 140. ISBN 978-92-64-99091-3.
- ↑ Hydrogen explosions Fukushima nuclear plant: what happened? Archived 2013-12-02 at the Wayback Machine. Hyer.eu. Retrieved on 2012-07-13.
- ↑ "The Fukushima Daiichi Accident. Report by the Director General" (PDF). International Atomic Energy Agency. 2015. p. 54. Retrieved 2 March 2018.
- ↑ Charlier, Phillip (2019-04-07). "Chemical plant explosion rocks southern Taiwan, heard more than 30 kilometers away". Taiwan English News (in English). Retrieved 2020-11-26.
- ↑ "Truck Carrying Hydrogen Tanks Catches Fire, Forces Evacs". NBC Southern California (in English). Retrieved 2019-06-18.
- ↑ "Diamond Bar Evacs Lifted After Hydrogen Fire". NBC Southern California (in English). Retrieved 2019-06-18.
- ↑ 323/310 Hood News (2018-02-12), DIAMOND BAR TRUCK EXPLOSION, archived from the original on 2021-12-21, retrieved 2019-06-18
- ↑ CBS Los Angeles (2018-02-11), Tractor Trailer Fire Evacuations In Diamond Bar, archived from the original on 2021-12-21, retrieved 2019-06-18
- ↑ "Hydrogen truck explodes on way to FCV refueling site [Video]". LeftLaneNews. Retrieved 2019-06-18.
- ↑ "Veridiam, Inc". Strategic Manufacturing Partner > Veridiam. Retrieved Nov 29, 2020.
- ↑ "Truck carrying liquid hydrogen catches fire". KGTV (in English). 2018-08-29. Retrieved 2019-06-26.
- ↑ "Tanker Filled With Liquid Hydrogen Catches Fire at El Cajon Business Park".
- ↑ "Hydrogen blast led to deaths at US silicones plant". Chemical & Engineering News (in English). Retrieved 2020-01-06.
- ↑ Herald, The Korea (2019-05-23). "Hydrogen tank explosion kills 2 in Gangneung". www.koreaherald.com (in English). Retrieved 2019-06-14.
- ↑ "Tank explosion poses setback for Seoul's push for hydrogen economy – Pulse by Maeil Business News Korea". pulsenews.co.kr (in 한국어). Retrieved 2019-06-14.
- ↑ Kim, S.I. and Y. Kim (2019). "Review: Hydrogen Tank Explosion in Gangneung, South Korea". Center for Hydrogen Safety Conference.
- ↑ "Hydrogen explosion shakes Santa Clara neighborhood". ABC7 San Francisco (in English). 2019-06-02. Retrieved 2019-06-12.
- ↑ Woodrow, Melanie. "Bay Area experiences hydrogen shortage after explosion", ABC news, June 3, 2019
- ↑ Huang, Echo. "A hydrogen fueling station explosion in Norway has left fuel-cell cars nowhere to charge". Quartz (in English). Retrieved 2019-06-12.
- ↑ Dobson, Geoff (12 June 2019). "Exploding hydrogen station leads to FCV halt". EV Talk.
- ↑ Sampson2019-06-13T12:02:00+01:00, Joanna. "Preliminary findings from H2 station investigation". gasworld (in English). Retrieved 2019-06-14.
- ↑ "Moon's 'hydrogen diplomacy' tarnished by charging station explosion". koreatimes (in English). 2019-06-13. Retrieved 2019-06-14.
- ↑ "Nel ASA: Status update #5 regarding incident at Kjørbo". News Powered by Cision (in English). Retrieved 2019-07-01.
- ↑ "VIDEO: 1 injured after explosion at Waukesha gas company". ABC7 Chicago (in English). 2019-12-13. Retrieved 2019-12-15.
- ↑ "Gas explosion injures 1 worker in Waukesha". Star Tribune. Retrieved 2019-12-15.
- ↑ Riccioli, Jim. "'A massive boom': Explosion at Waukesha gas company reverberated through the city and left one injured". Milwaukee Journal Sentinel (in English). Retrieved 2019-12-15.
- ↑ "Explosion at hydrogen fuel plant in US damages around 60 buildings". www.hazardexonthenet.net. Retrieved 2020-05-07.
- ↑ Burgess2020-04-08T11:51:00+01:00, Molly. "60 homes damaged after hydrogen plant explosion". gasworld (in English). Retrieved 2020-05-07.
- ↑ Burgess2020-04-14T08:20:00+01:00, Molly. "OneH2: Hydrogen plant explosion update". gasworld (in English). Retrieved 2020-05-07.
- ↑ Koebler, Jason (2020-04-07). "One of the Country's Only Hydrogen Fuel Cell Plants Suffers Huge Explosion". Vice (in English). Retrieved 2020-05-07.
- ↑ "HYDROGEN SAFETY SYSTEMS OPERATED EFFECTIVELY, PREVENTED INJURY AT PLANT EXPLOSION" (PDF). oneh2.com. April 10, 2020. Retrieved 29 November 2020.
- ↑ "Praxair Texas City Hydrogen Plant Explosion". "Zehl & Associates". 2020-06-12. Retrieved 2020-06-20.
- ↑ Lacombe, James (2020-06-11). "Small industrial explosion rattles Texas City". Galveston County-The Daily News (in English). Retrieved 2020-06-20.
- ↑ Charlier, Phillip (2020-09-30). "Hydrogen tanker crashes and explodes on freeway in Changhua City". Taiwan English News (in English). Retrieved 2020-11-26.
- ↑ Parkinson, Giles (2021-08-11). "World's newest and most expensive coal plant explodes after hydrogen leak". RenewEconomy (in English). Retrieved 2021-10-11.
- ↑ Wimbley, Randy (2022-02-25). "2 injured in hydrogen tank explosion at Henry Ford Hospital parking deck". Fox2Detroit.com (in English). Retrieved 2022-02-25.
- ↑ "Explosion at Bradford County plant". wnep.com (in English). April 21, 2022. Retrieved 2022-12-17.
- ↑ "Explosion at plant sends multiple people to hospital". WETM - MyTwinTiers.com (in English). 2022-04-21. Retrieved 2022-12-17.
- ↑ HySafe Initial Guidance for Using Hydrogen in Confined Spaces. (PDF) . Retrieved on 2012-07-13.
- ↑ 81.0 81.1 81.2 Cadwallader, L C, and Herring, J S (1999). "Safety Issues with Hydrogen as a Vehicle Fuel". United States. doi:10.2172/761801.
{{cite news}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ↑ "List of NFPA Codes & Standards". NFPA.
- ↑ "Standards and/or projects under the direct responsibility of ISO/TC 197 Secretariat of the International Organization for Standardization".
- ↑ "AIAA G-095-2004, Guide to Safety of Hydrogen and Hydrogen Systems" (PDF). AIAA. Retrieved 2008-07-28.
- ↑ Gregory, Frederick D. (February 12, 1997). "Safety Standard for Hydrogen and Hydrogen Systems" (PDF). NASA. Archived from the original (PDF) on February 27, 2006. Retrieved 2008-05-09.
- ↑ Safety Standard for Hydrogen and Hydrogen Systems: Guidelines for Hydrogen System Design, Materials Selection, Operations, Storage, and Transportation. Vol. NASA TM-112540, NSS 1740.16. Washington, DC: Office of Safety and Mission Assurance, National Aeronautics and Space Administration. 1997-10-29.
- ↑ Sourcebook for Hydrogen Applications. Quebec, CA: Hydrogen Research Institute and the National Renewable Energy Laboratory. 1998.
- ↑ हाइड्रोजन (4 ed.). Arlington, VA: Compressed Gas Association, Inc. 1991.
- ↑ Standard for Hydrogen Piping Systems (1 ed.). Arlington, VA: Compressed Gas Association, Inc. 1992.
- ↑ Hydrogen Vent Systems (1 ed.). Arlington, VA: Compressed Gas Association, Inc. 1996.